Electricity from Solar Energy: UNIZOR.COM - Physics4Teens - Electromagne...

Notes to a video lecture on http://www.unizor.com

Solar Energy → Electricity

Solar panels that produce electricity are not physically or chemically changed during this process. So, the only source of energy is the light, and the energy it carries is transformed by a solar panel into electricity, that is into movement of electrons.
In this lecture we will analyze how the energy of light forces the electrons to move.
The complete theory behind this process is based on principles of quantum mechanics and we will not be able to dive deep into this area, but a schematic description of the process will be presented.

Commercial solar panel are much more complex that might seem from the following explanation, but their engineering is not a subject of this lecture, which is only about the principle of generation of electricity from sun light.

Let's start with the most important component of a solar cell - silicon (Si).
Silicon is a metalloid, it has crystalline structure and its atoms have four valence electrons on the outer most orbit, next down orbit contains eight electrons and the inner most - two electrons.

Silicon is one of the most frequently occurring elements on Earth and, together with oxygen, forms molecules of silicon dioxide SiO₂ - main component of sand.

All silicon atoms are neutral since the number of electrons in each one and the number of protons in each nucleus are the same and equal to 14.
Atoms are connected by their covalent bonds of valence electrons on the outer orbits into a lattice-like crystalline structure.

Picture below represents the crystalline structure of silicon

For the purposes of this lecture we will represent inner structure of silicon atoms with only outer orbit of each atom with four valence electrons, as electrons on the inner orbits do not participate in the process of generating electricity from light.

The covalent bonds are quite strong, they do not easily release electrons. As a result, under normal conditions silicon is practically a dielectric.
However, if we excite the electrons sufficiently enough to break the covalent bonds, some electrons will move. For example, if we increase the temperature of a piece of silicon or put it under a bright sun light and measure its electrical resistance, we will observe the resistance diminishing.
That's why silicon and similar elements are called semiconductors.

While excited electrons of any semiconductor decrease its electrical resistance, they don't produce electromotive force because the material as a whole remains electrically neutral.
To build a solar cell that produces electricity under sun light we will introduce two kinds of "impurities" into crystalline lattice of silicon.
One is an element with five valence electrons on the outer most orbit, like phosphorus (P). When it's embedded into a crystalline lattice of silicon, one electron on that outer orbit of phosphorus would remain not attached to any neighboring atom through a covalent bond.

This creates the possibility for this electron to start traveling, replacing other electrons and pushing them out, which are, in turn, push out others etc. Basically, we create as many freelance electrons as many atoms of phosphorus we add to silicon base.
The whole material is still neutral, but it has certain number of freelance electrons and the same number of stationary positive ions - those nuclei of phosphorus that lost electrons to freelancers.
Silicon with such addition is called n-type (letter n for negative).

Another type of "impurity" that we will add to silicon is an element with three valence electrons on the outer orbit, like boron (B).
When atoms of boron are embedded into a crystalline lattice of silicon, the overall structure of this combination looks like this

In this case the lattice has a deficiency of an electron that is traditionally called a "hole". Existence of a "hole" opens the opportunity for neighboring valence electrons to fill it, thus creating a "hole" in another spot. These "holes" behave like positively charged particles traveling inside silicon with added boron inasmuch as negatively charged electrons travel in silicon with added phosphorus.
Silicon with such addition of boron is called p-type (letter p for positive).

Now imagine two types of "impure" silicon, n-type and p-type, contacting each other. In practice, it's two flat pieces (like very thin squares) on top of each other.
Let's examine what happens in a thin layer of border between these different types of material.

Initially, both pieces of material are electrically neutral with n-type having free traveling electrons and equal number of stationary positive nuclei of phosphorus inside a crystalline structure and with p-type having traveling "holes" and equal number of stationary negative nuclei of silicon inside a crystalline structure.

As soon as contact between these two types of material is established, certain exchange between electrons of the n-type material and "holes" of the p-type takes place in the border region called p-n junction. Electrons and "holes" in this border region combine, thus reconstituting the lattice.
This process is called recombination.

The consequence of this process of recombination is that n-type material near the border loses electrons, thus becoming positively charged, while the p-type gains the electrons, that is loses "holes", thus becoming negatively charged.

Eventually, the diffusion between n-type and p-type materials stops because negative charge of the p-type sufficiently repels electrons from the n-type. There will be some equilibrium between both parts.

If we introduce heat or bright sun light to electrons of n-type part, the diffusion will be longer and greater charge will be accumulated on both sides of the material - positive on the n-type and negative on the p-type.

Now the key point is to connect n-type side to p-type through some kind of electrical connection and extra electrons from the p_type will go to positively charged n-type, thus creating an electric current. This current is weak because only the diffusion between n-type and p-type in the border region is a contributing factor, but it's still the electric current.

Obviously, the more excited electrons in the n-type material are - the stronger diffusion inside the p-n junction is and the stronger current is produced. That's why, if sun light is used to excite the electrons, the more light falls on the n-type side - the stronger current is produced.

A pair of n-type and p-type materials form a cell. Since we are talking about using sun light to excite electrons, these cells are called solar cells or photovoltaic cells. Cells can be connected in a series increasing the produced electromotive force (voltage) or they can be connected in parallel to increase the electric current (amperage). Solar panels are sets of solar cells connected in series to increase the generated electromotive force (voltage).

Materials used to produce commercial solar cells can be different, not necessarily silicon with phosphorus or boron additions, but the main principle of using p-n junction between superconductors is the same for all.

Chemical Energy to Electricity: UNIZOR.COM - Physics4Teens - Electromagn...

Notes to a video lecture on http://www.unizor.com

Chemical Energy → Electric Energy

To generate energy, the source components participating in the process should have more energy than the final components of the process. In case of generation of any form of energy from chemical energy we deal with chemical reaction, during which the inter-atomic energy of source components should exceed the inter-atomic energy of products of chemical reaction.

The simple form of such process is burning that produces heat. For example, burning methane CH₄ in atmosphere that contains oxygen O₂ is a chemical reaction described by
CH₄ + 2O₂ = CO₂ + 2H₂O
The inter-atomic energy of one molecule of methane and two molecules of oxygen must be greater than inter-atomic energy of a molecule of carbon dioxide and two molecules of water, otherwise there will not be any energy released as heat.

To generate electric energy from chemical we need the same type of inequality: the inter-atomic energy of primary components of the chemical reaction must be greater than inter-atomic energy of the resulting components.
The way how this excess of energy represented depends on the chemical reaction. In the process of burning the excess of energy is in a form of heat, in case of the generating of electricity the excess of energy is in a form of electric current that has certain voltage and amperage and, therefore, is a carrier of energy.

Transformation of chemical energy into electricity is typically occurring in batteries.
There are different types of batteries, and in this lecture we will mention a few with some details of how they work.

Consider a lead-acid battery used in many cars.
In a simplified way it has three major components: solid anode (negative electrode) made of lead Pb, solid cathode (positive electrode) made of lead dioxide PbO₂ and liquid electrolyte in-between them containing sulfuric acid H₂SO₄ diluted in water H₂O.

To understand why electricity is generated by this device, let's look inside the atomic structure of its components and analyze what happens when there is a load (like a lamp) connected to its terminals.

Recall the classical planetary model of an atom.
There are protons and neutrons forming its nucleus and electrons circulating around this nucleus on different orbits.
Those electrons on outer most orbits are less attached to a host nucleus and many of them can fly around, potentially getting attached by other host nuclei.
This creates certain amount of "free" positively (with deficit of electrons) charged ions called cations and negatively (with access of electrons) charged ions called anions.

Analogously, molecules are also not completely stable and can lose atoms, if inter-atomic forces are not strong enough.
Applied to molecular structure of any substance, typical contents not only contains electrically neutral molecules, but also molecules with certain missing or extra atoms or electrons - ions.

Consider sulfuric acid inside a battery pictured above.
Structural composition of atoms of each molecule of this acid can be represented as

Many of electrically neutral molecules of sulfuric acid H₂SO₄ are partially breaking losing a positive ions (nuclei with a single proton) of hydrogen but retaining their electrons, which can be represented as
H₂SO₄ → 2H ⁺ + SO₄²⁻
This can be explained by the fact that hydrogen nucleus contains only one proton, this is the lightest and electrically weakest nucleus and, being so light and volatile, it easily breaks its inter-atomic links with the main molecule of sulfuric acid. The resulting cations H ⁺ and anions SO₄²⁻ are actually responsible for burning and corrosion caused by sulfuric acid. In batteries, however, these ions are responsible for producing electricity.
Here is how.

The negative anode of a lead-acid battery is made of lead (chemical symbol Pb), which, when going into chemical reactions, exhibits either 2 or 4 links to other atoms in the molecules.
The negative ion (anion) SO₄²⁻, produced during the breaking of the molecules of sulfuric acid, chemically reacts with led producing lead sulfate, and releasing two electrons left after ions of hydrogen broke free from the molecule of sulfuric acid as follows:
Pb+SO₄²⁻ → PbSO₄ + 2e⁻
Structural composition of atoms of each molecule of lead sulfate can be represented as


Keep an eye on two electrons 2e⁻ produced at anode. They are produced on the surface of a lead anode and accumulated inside it up to a certain concentration that gives certain negative charge to an anode. These electrons will be the ones that produce the electric current, when some load (like a lamp) is connected to terminals of a battery.

Meanwhile, at the cathode terminal of a led-acid battery another reaction goes on between its main component lead dioxide PbO₂, having the following structure

and electrolyte that still contains unused positive ions of hydrogen 2H⁺ from the reaction on an anode and another pair of ions, positive 2H⁺ and negative SO₄²⁻ of the sulfuric acid.

Now two reactions simultaneously go on at the surface of a cathode.
First of all, lead dioxide connects with negative ion of sulfuric acid, producing lead sulfate and releasing two negative ions of oxygen:
PbO₂ + SO₄²⁻ →
→ PbSO₄ + 2O⁻
Secondly, remaining two positive ions of hydrogen from a molecule of sulfuric acid participating in the above reaction and two positive ions of hydrogen from the reaction on an anode meet two negative ions of oxygen from the above reaction, forming two molecules of water H₂O with two electrons still missing:
4H⁺ + 2O⁻ → 2H₂O²⁺

Concentration of these molecules of water missing two electrons creates a positive charge on the cathode terminal of a battery. When this concentration reaches certain level, positive ions of hydrogen cannot reach a cathode, ions of hydrogen are not readily breaking off the molecules of sulfuric acid and reaction stops at certain level of positive charge, unless we connect anode and cathode through some external electric load to allow accumulated on an anode electrons compensate missing electrons on a cathode.

So, we have a shortage of two electrons on a cathode terminal of a battery to form electrically neutral molecules of lead dioxide and water, but these two electrons can travel through an outside load between the terminals of a battery from its anode.
The overall reaction on a cathode looks like
PbO₂ + 4H⁺ + SO₄²⁻ + 2e⁻ →
→ PbSO₄ + 2H₂O

As a result of these chemical reactions electrons released by a reaction on an anode travel to a cathode through external load, thus creating an electric current.
In an absence of an external load reactions on terminals of a battery continue until some limit of concentration of negative charge on an anode and positive charge on a cathode is reached, after which the reactions stops as further ionization is prevented by accumulated charges.

This is how chemical energy (inter-molecular links) is converted into electrical energy in a lead-acid battery.

The above described lead-acid battery is capable to work in reverse, to accumulate chemical energy, if external electromotive force is applied to its terminals. In this case all reactions go in reverse, that's how car battery is charged by alternator, when a car is in motion.
The overall picture of the lead-acid battery to discharge and charge is as follows

Electricity from Kinetic Energy: UNIZOR.COM - Physics4Teens - Electromag...

Notes to a video lecture on http://www.unizor.com

Kinetic Energy → Electric Energy

The main principle used in converting kinetic energy into electric is the principle of electromagnetic induction.
Recall the Faraday's Law that defines the induced EMF as being proportional to a rate of changing the magnetic flux
EMF = −dΦ/dt

We can achieve a variable magnetic flux by either rotating the wire frame in the permanent magnetic field or rotating the magnetic field inside the wire frame. The corresponding designs were discussed earlier in this course.

In this lecture we will talk about how we can make a rotation of a rotor in the electric generator.

The simplest form of generating a rotational movement is if we already have some mechanical movement, so all we need is to transform one form of motion (usually, along some trajectory) into a rotational one.

As the first example of such purely mechanical device, consider a propeller.

It can be used to convert the flow of water in hydroelectric plants or the flow of wind through a wind turbine into a rotation. Once we have a rotational motion of the rotor in an electric generator, the rest goes along the previously described way of generation of electricity according to the laws of induction.
It can be a generation of alternating current, including three-phase one, or direct current. These were discussed in details in previous lectures.

In other cases we do not have already available motion that we can transform into a rotation, but we can artificially create one, using some other form of energy.
The common process thermal power station is to generate a flow of steam by heating the water or a flow of some kind of combustion gases. This can be done by using the burners that burn coal, oil or natural gas.
Another way of heating is to use nuclear energy to heat the water by controlling the chain reaction inside the radioactive core of a nuclear reactor.
In some cases the solar energy is used to heat the water to produce a flow of steam.
Rarely used types of heat are geothermal and ocean thermal sources.

In all these cases some kind of turbines are used to convert the flow of moving substance (water, air, gases, steam) into a rotation.
Steam turbines are just a more sophisticated type of propeller (or rather coaxial propellers), allowing to extract as much as possible energy from the steam flow.


Another form of generating electricity from heat and kinetic energy is internal combustion engines. The work of such engine results in a reciprocating motion of a piston, converted, using a connecting rod and a crankshaft, into rotation of a rotor of an electric generator that generates electricity.


In all the above cases the electricity is produced from kinetic energy of some substance, which is either readily available in nature (like water flowing along a river) or produced as a result of some process (like heating the water to produce a flow of steam).